Topic 6: REPRODUCTION
Concept
of Reproduction
Reproduction is the ability of living organisms to
form new individuals of the same species from those already in existence. Here,
the new organisms replace those that have died and so life continues. It can
also be defined as the process whereby organisms produce new individuals of the
same species. It is one of the important features of living things.
The
Merits and Demerits of Sexual and Asexual Reproduction
Explain
the merits and demerits of sexual and asexual reproduction
Sexual Reproduction
This is a type of reproduction in which new
organism is produced when a male gamete fuses with a female gamete. Sexual
reproduction involves the fusion of two gametes. The process of fusion of
gametes is called fertilization.
These two gametes differ in form and function and
each is produced from a different organ. In animals the gametes producing
organs are called gonads. These include the ovaries and testes. In flowering
plant structures concerned with the production of gametes are the ovaries and
anthers. The testes and anthers produce the male gametes while ovaries produce
the female gametes.
Merits
of Sexual Reproduction
§
It
ensures genetic stability
§
It
ensures perpetuation of life
§
It
brings variation
§
Leads
to the interaction among organisms
Demerits
of Sexual Reproduction
§
Offspring
have a great chance of inheriting diseases from the parent
§
The
reproduction takes long time
§
It
needs energy
§
The
sexual reproduction produces few numbers of offspring
§
It
depends on presences of two parents
§
It
leads to great chance of spreading diseases
§
It
takes a long time until offspring are produced
Asexual Reproduction
This is the type of reproduction whereby production
of offspring is from single organism without the production of gametes. There
is no fusion of gametes.
Examples of organisms who produce asexually are
amoeba and bacteria. Asexual reproduction involves only one individual
organism. That means no change of genetic material is passed from a parent to
an offspring. The offspring are also identical to their parents.
In this kind of reproduction, in same organisms,
body part such as roots, stems or leaves may become reproductive body organs.
Depending on the type of organisms asexual
reproduction may be of different forms or ways such as:
§ Fission
§ Sporulation/Spore formation
§ Budding
§ Fragmentation
§ Vegetative propagation
§ Binnary Fission (Splitting)
§ Suckers
§ Bulbils
Binary
Fission (Splitting)
This is an asexual reproduction in which an
organism divides into two equal parts, which are identical to each other.
Each part then grows to attain the original size of
the parent cell and hence become a separate and independent organism.
Fragmentation
This is a form of asexual reproduction in which
organisms (parent) breaks into two or more parts. Fragments grow and develop
into a new organism with identical features as the parent. Example worms such
as Nematodes and flat worms.
Sporulation/Spore
formation
Sporulation is asexual reproduction by the use of
spores. The spore develops from single cell as a result of mitosis, forming a
structure known as sporangium. When the sporangium is truly developed, the wall
bursts to release the spores which when placed in suitable area they germinate
into new organisms.
Other organisms, which reproduce by sporulation,
are ferns and mosses.
Budding
Budding is a type of asexual reproduction in which
a new organism arises as an outgrowth (bud) of the older organism (parent). The
bud later separates from the parent and grows to become an independent organism
to attain the size of the parent. Examples: yeast and hydra
Some flowering plants reproduce through the
formation of structure called buds. Roots may form such buds, leaves or
underground stems and such buds sprout to form new independent plants.
Vegetative
propagation
Vegetative propagation is a form of asexual
reproduction found in plants in which a bud grows and develops into a new
plant. The detached plant, root, stem or leaves at some stages grows and
develops into an independent plant.
Artificial vegetables propagation: This
is vegetative propagation, which occurs through man’s manipulation. Man can
learn from plants’ natural vegetative propagation and can intervene and make
propagation of plants artificially.
Natural vegetative propagation:
Vegetative propagation involves different parts of plants as discussed below.
Such as:
Bulb
In this type each bud grows to form a shoot, which
produces a new bulb at the end of the growing season.
Bulb is a modified underground shoot having fresh
strong leaves
Tubers
These are short swollen underground storage organs
formed from a stem or a root. New tubers are made at the end of the growing
season but do not arise from old tubers.
Stem
tubers
These are short swollen underground stems, which
store food, such as starch. Normally, yam plants form a number of tubers each
of which can rise to a new plant. Such new plant continues to live after the
death of the parent.
Root
tubers
These are swollen adventitious underground roots.
Roots tubers such as sweet potatoes and cassava store their food in root tubers
and do not bear leaves or bud.
Rhizomes
These are horizontally growing underground stems,
bearing leaves, buds and adventitious roots. Examples are lilies, ferns and
grass.
Stolons
These are slender stems, creeping horizontally as
they grow along the ground surface. Examples: strawberries, black currant and
oxalis.
Suckers
These are short horizontal branches, arising from
the main stem or just below ground level. Suckers contain food reserves.
Examples: Bananas, sisal and pineapples
Tap
root
A taproot is the main root that arises from a
radical. Tap roots may become swollen and act as storage organs.
Tillers
These are collection of shoots. Grass plants
consist of a number of tillers. Each tiller has a number of leaves, which arise
from the stem of nodes at the base of the leaves.
Leaves
Some plants such as cactus propagate vegetative
using leaves. When the leaves fall off from a plant they develop adventitious
roots and buds, which later may grow and develop into mature plants.
Merits
of Asexual Reproduction
§
Asexual
reproduction results into an individual with the same genetic constitution as
their parent.
§
Its
offspring matures faster than sexually reproduced organisms
§
It
does not depend on processes of pollination, seed or fruit dispersal
Demerits
of Asexual Reproduction
§
Asexually
reproducing organisms are at a great risk to perish or get destructed when
environmental conditions are unfavorable
§
The
parents may pass undesirable characteristics to the offspring since only one
individual organism is involved in asexual reproduction
§
Competition
for resources such as food and shelter may occur due to large number of
organisms being produced
Meiosis
and Reproduction
The
Meaning of Meiosis
Give the meaning of meiosis
Reproduction involves the transmission of genetic
materials from one generation to the next insuring that species survive. The
process of reproduction involves meiosis.
Meiosis is the type of cell division, which occurs
in the reproductive organs to produce sex cells known as gametes.
In this type of cell division the parent cells has
diploid number of chromosomes. However the daughter cell arising from the cell
division has the half number of chromosomes a condition known as haploid state.
Therefore meiosis reduces the chromosomes number
into half means from 2n to n.
The
Significance of Meiosis in Relation to Reproduction
Explain the significance of meiosis in relation to
reproduction
Meiosis leads to the formation of reproductive
cells (Gametes) such as ova and sperms each with half number of chromosomes of
the parent cells in organisms reproducing through sexual reproduction.
It involves the possibility of exchange of pieces
of genetic information between the paternal and maternal chromosomes of each
pair leading to new combination of characteristics in the gametes.
It brings about variation when the members of each
pair of chromosomes are separated from each other independently (Random
assortment)
Meiosis leads to new combination of genes through
the process of independent assortment of chromosomes occurring during meiosis I
Meiosis involves number of processes from prophase,
metaphase, anaphase and telephase. There are two meiotic divisions, the first
and the second division. All the above named processes occur in both the first
meiotic division and the second meiotic division.
First Meiotic Division
The first division of meiosis consists of:
§
Prophase
I
§
Metaphase
I
§
Anaphase
I
§
Telophase
I
Telophase I
Prophase
I
During prophase I the following events occur.
§
The
nucleus disappears and the centrioles if present migrate to the poles
§
Chromosomes
condenses and the spindle is formed
§ As prophase proceed homologous chromosomes come to
lie side by side and there after become intertwined by the process called
synapsis
Through synapsis homologous chromosomes is referred
to as crossing over. The point at which homologous chromosomes exchange genetic
materials is known as chiasmata
Early
Prophase I
The following events occur during early prophase:
§
Chromosomes
contract, thickening, shortening and become more visible
§ Nucleus disintegrate and disappear
Mid Prophase
I
§
Homologous
chromosomes come together (synapses) forming a bivalent
Late
Prophase I
§
Chromatids
cross over by chiasmata which results into exchange of genetic materials
Metaphase
I
§
Bivalent
homologous chromosomes moves to the equator of the spindle
Anaphase
I
§
The
two homologous chromosomes part company and migrate to opposite poles of the
spindle
§
The
centromeres of the homologous pairs migrate towards the opposite poles where
they are attracted.
Telophase
§
The
chromosomes reach their destination
§
The
spindle apparatuses breaks down and disintegrates
§
Then
the nucleus membrane reforms around each set of chromosomes
§
The
cell constricts across the membrane and divides into two
Telephase I make the end of the first meiotic
division.
§
At the
end of this prophase the number of chromosomes in each cell is half the
chromosomes number cell.
§ This is the reason why first meiotic division is
referred to as Reduction division
Second meiotic division
Prophase
II
Centrioles replicates and a new spindle apparatuses
formed
Metaphase
II
Chromosomes migrate to the equator f the spindle
Anaphase
II
§
Sister
chromatids part company and migrate to opposite poles of the cell
Telophase
II
§
The
spindle apparatuses disappears
§
The
nucleus repairs and a new nucleus membrane is formed around each set of
chromatids
§
The
chromatids uncoil and the cell divides into two
§
Chromosomes
regain their thread like structure and the cell enter interphase. Meiosis
results into the formation of four daughter cells each with haploid set of
chromosomes
§
It
should be stressed that the four daughter cells formed has the half number of
chromosomes present in the original parent cell.
Experiments
to Show Stages of Meiosis Process
Carry out experiments to show stages of meiosis
process
Meiosis Vedeo
Reproduction
in Flowering Plants, the structure of the Flower
Some plants use flowers to reproduce. The flowers
contain all the parts needed for the reproduction process. Sexual reproduction
in flowering plants takes place in the flower. Within a flower, there are
usually structures that produce both male gametes and female gametes.
The
Structure of the Flower
Describe the structure of the flower
A flowering plant is an angiosperm, which is any
plant that produces a flower or fruit. The sole purpose of the flower is to
allow the plant to reproduce. Each part of the flower plays a role in the steps
of reproduction. There are male gametes and female gametes. They are both
directly involved with sexual reproduction. Pollen may spread from plant to
plant but can only reproduce with the same species of plants. Let's take a look
at the different parts of the flower.
Structure of a flower
STERILE PARTS
Let's start with the sterile parts of the flower,
or those parts that are neither male nor female. These sterile parts are not
directly involved in the fertilization process. Technically, a flowering plant
can reproduce without them; however, they do play important roles in helping
with reproduction.
§ Pedicel:The pedicel is a small stalk or
stalk-like part bearing a single flower in an inflorescence. The Some flowers
have no stalk and are directly attached to the stem of the plant.
§ Receptacle:The
receptacle is the place on the stem where floral organs originate and attach.It
is the axis (stem) to which the floral organs are attached. In most
angiosperms, floral organs are attached in alternating successive whorls. A
whorl is an arrangement of sepals, petals, leaves, stipules or branches that
radiate from a single point and surround or wrap around the stem.
§ Sepals:Sepals are the parts that look like
little leaves that cover the flower before it blooms. They cup the flower to
protect it while it grows. Sepals are mostly green and in most flowers they
resemble leaves. A flower bud is protected by sepals. Collectively, all of the
sepals form the calyx.Sepals may be hairy, for example in roses, or smooth, for
example in hibiscus.Some flowers have sepal-like structures beneath the calyx
known as epicalyx, for example the hibiscus flower.
§
Petals:Petals
are the delicate and usually brightly coloured part that gives the flower its
character. Flowers have more than one petal, and the flower petals are
collectively called the corolla. The colour and scent attracts the agents of pollination
such as birds and insects. Fused petals form a corolla that can be tubular or
funnel-shaped as in the flowers of sweet potato and pumpkin plants. Some of the
petals of leguminous plants are keel-like and they enclose stamens and
carpels.Sepals and petals are collectively referred to as the perianth.
Reproductive
Parts of the Flower
Identify reproductive parts of the flower
The flower is the reproductive unit of some plants
(angiosperms). Parts of the flower include petals, sepals, one or more carpels
(the female reproductive organs), and stamens (the male reproductive organs).
The female reproductive organs
The pistil is the collective term for the
carpel(s). A carpel is actually three parts fused into one: stigma, style, and
ovary. The stigma is at the top of the flower. It is sticky to catch the
pollen. Each carpel includes an ovary (where the ovules are produced; ovules
are the female reproductive cells, the eggs), a style (a tube on top of the
ovary), and a stigma (which receives the pollen during fertilization).
The ovary is at the base of the flower. From the
ovary, extends a tubular structure called the style and on the top of the style
is a surface receptive to pollen called the stigma. The stigma can take many
different forms, most of them designed to help trap pollen.
Female parts of a flower
The female parts of the flower are discussed in
detail below:
§ Ovary:The ovary contains ovules. Ovules are
unfertilized female gametes. The position of the ovary in relation to the
receptacle varies from one flower to another. The ovary could be either
superior or inferior in relation to the position of the receptacle. A superior
ovary is one that is positioned above the receptacle, for example the ovary of
a bean flower. An inferior ovary is one that is positioned below or enclosed
within the receptacle. Examples are the ovaries of a rose and a black jack
flower.
§ Style:The style is a long tube that
attaches the stigma to the ovary. The length of the style varies from one
flower to another. This length determines the position of the stigma. In the
maize plants, the style and the stigma hand outside the flower.
§
Stigma:The
stigma is a glandular sticky structure at the tip of the carpel. The stigma is
the tissue into which the pollen grains are deposited. The branches of the
stigma correspond to the number of carpels. Five branches of the stigma
indicate the presence of five carpels.
The male reproductive organs
The male parts of a flower consist of one or more
stamens. Stamens are the male reproductive parts of flowers. A stamen consists
of an anther (which produces pollen) and a filament. The pollen consists of the
male reproductive cells; they fertilize ovules.
Male parts of a flower
The following is a detailed description of the
female parts of the flower.
§ Filament:The
filament is a slender stalk that supports the anther. The filament may arise
from the receptacle or the petals. It supports the anther.
§
Anther:The
anther is attached to the apex of the filament. It produces the pollen grains
that contain the sperm needed for fertilization.
Types of flowers
Flowers are classified either as complete or
incomplete. Complete flowers have sepals, petals stamens and
carpels. A flower with both stamens and carpel is said to be bisexual. The
hibiscus flower is bisexual.
Incomplete flowers lack some of the floral parts.
Flowers that have carpels only are referred to as pistillate flowers. Flowers
that have stamens only are referred to as staminate flowers.
Pollination
The
Term Pollination
Explain the term pollination
Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from
the anthers to the stigma of a flower. Pollen grains from the anthers are
carried to the stigma by wind, insects or birds. These are referred to as the
agents of pollination.Pollination, an important step in the reproduction of
seed plants, is the transfer of pollen grains (male gametes) from the male
reproductive organ to the female reproductive organ that contains the ovule
(female gamete) or transfers it to the ovule itself.
Pollination is a very important part of the life
cycle of a flowering plant. It is part of the sexual reproduction process of
flowering plants, which results in seeds that will grow into new plants.
Types
of Pollination
Identify types of pollination
Pollination can either be self or cross
pollination:
§ Self pollination:This
is the transfer of pollen grains from the anthers to the stigma of the same
flower.
§
Cross
pollination:This is the transfer of pollen grains from the
anthers of the flower to the stigma of another flower of the same species.
Disadvantages of self pollination:A
potential drawback is that both gametes come from the same parent. If the plant
is well adapted to a stable environment, the production of uniform offspring
may be advantageous. However, inbreeding will result and if there are
disadvantageous recessive characteristics in the parent, they are much more
likely to be exposed than if the plant cross-pollinates.
Advantages of cross pollination:Cross-pollination
is less reliable and more wasteful than self-pollination, but it is genetically
favourable because genes are transferred and variation increases
Factors that favour cross pollination
and hinder self pollination
§ Dioecious plants: Some
plants have flowers that are only male - they have onlystamen. Other plants of the same species have flowers
that are only female - they have only carpels.
§ Monoecious plants: Some
flowers on a plant are only male; other flowers on the same plant are only
female. So, self pollination is avoided by a difference in the timing of their
development.
§ Protandry: Anthers on some plants mature
first. Pollination of immature stigma on the same plant is therefore not
possible.
§ Protogyny: The stigmas mature first.
§
Self-incompatibility:
Pollination can occur but the pollen tube doesn't grow well, if at all, so no
fertilisation takes place.
Agents
of Pollination
Outline agents of pollination
These are organisms or physical conditions that
facilitate transfer of pollen grains from the anthers to stigmas. Plants, being
immobile, normally require agents for the transport of pollen, which are
commonly wind, insects, birds, mammals (bats, rodents, primates), and water.
Insects are the most common animals that will pollinate a carpel. The main
agents of pollination are wind, insects and birds.
Wind pollinated flowers
Wind-pollinated flowers are also those flowers
whose pollen is transferred by wind from anthers to stigmas. Wind picks pollen
grains from the anthers and transfers them to the stigma.
Structure of a wind-pollinated flower:The
anthers and stigma of wind-pollinated flowers are exposed. This makes sit easy
for wind to blow the pollen that can then easily land on the stigma. Flowers of
grasses are a representative of wind pollinated flowers.
Adaptations
of wind-pollinated flowers
Flowers that depend on wind for pollination are
adapted in various ways. Plants that are pollinated by wind have the following
characteristics:
§
Small
petals with exposed anthers and stigma. In some plants the petals are often
absent or have dull-coloured petals that do not attract insects or birds. The
petals and sepals are very similar in shape and size.
§
Large
anthers which produce large amounts of pollen grains. Very large quantities of
pollen are produced to increase chances of pollination as much will be lost
while blown about.
§
Anthers
are loosely attached to the filaments and hang freely to allow the anthers to
be easily shaken by the wind.
§
The
pollen grains are small, smooth, dry and light in weight and therefore easily
carried in the air by wind. Some pollen grains have bladder-like structures
that contain air, thus, increasing their buoyancy.
§
Feathery
stigmas with a large sticky surface so they are more likely to catch pollen
from the air.
§
Large
and feathery stigmas, freely hanging out of the flowers, which provide a large
surface area on which the pollen grains can land. The stigma may be branched or
hairy to increase the surface area.
§
Long,
hairy style to expose the stigma outside the flower.
§
No
nectar produced because they is no need to attract pollinators to the flower.
§
Not
scented as the flowers do not attract insects.
§
Filaments
grow long so stamens hang out of the flower and shake in the wind to disperse
pollen.
Wind-pollinated flower
Insect-pollinated flowers (bees,
moths, butterflies)
Insect-pollinated flowers are also referred to as
entomophilous flower. The term entomophilous is derived from the word
entomophily- which means to be carried by insects. Features of insect
pollinated flowers include the following:
§
Large,
brightly-coloured petals which attract insects. Flower structure may be adapted
for one particular of insect, allowing them to land and feed.
§
Usually
scented; therefore they attract insects to the flower.
§
Nectarines
which contain nectar, for example, mango flowers have nectarines from which
bees collect nectar for making honey, and while doing so transfer the pollen.
The insects are guided to the nectarines by the nectar guides.
§
Sticky
stigma that insects come into contact with and deposit pollen while collecting
nectar. The pollen grains picked by insects from other flowers stick onto the
stigma.
§
The
stigma and anthers are held firmly in position within the flower. This ensures
that when an insect lands on a flower, the stigma is not broken. The stigma and
anthers are located inside the flower where pollinators are more likely to pick
up pollen.
§
The
anthers are small in size and produce few but large pollen grains.
§
The
pollen grains are fairly large, heavy, sticky and with small spines. This
enables them to adhere to bodies of pollinators (insects or birds).
A bee collects pollen on its body as it
feeds
Flower pollinated by birds:Birds
pollinate flowers when they search for nectar. Birds such as sunbirds have long
slender and slightly curved beaks that they use to probe into the flower.
Pollen grains stick on the beak. The pollen grains are deposited on the stigma
of another flower of the same species by the bird as the bird feeds.
A bird feeding on nectar
Fertilization
The
Concept of Fertilization
Explain the concept of fertilization
Fertilisation is the union of the male and female
gametes to form a zygote. Pollen must fertilise an ovule to produce a viable
seed. Fertilisation starts when a pollen grain lands on the stigma. Only after
pollination, when pollen has landed on the stigma of a suitable flower of the
same species, can a chain of events happen that ends in the making of seeds.
After a male's pollen grains have landed on the
stigma during fertilization, pollen tubes develop within the style, burrowing
down to the ovary, where the sperm fertilizes an ovum (an egg cell), in the
ovule. A pollen tube emerges from the grain, its growth being controlled by the
tube nucleus at the tip of the tube. It may grow downwards in response to
chemicals made by the ovary (a response known as chemotropism).
In a process called fertilisation, the two gametes
join and their chromosomes combine, so that the fertilised cell contains a
normal complement of chromosomes, with some from each parent flower. The
fertilised ovule goes on to form a seed, which contains a food store and an
embryo that will later grow into a new plant. The ovary develops into a fruit
to protect the seed. Some flowers, such as avocados, only have one ovule in
their ovary, so their fruit only has one seed. Many flowers have lots of ovules
in their ovary, so their fruit contains many seeds.
There are 2 types of seeds. Some are endospermic
while others are non-endospermic. In endospermic seeds the food reserve is the
endosperm, which is outside the plant embryo. Examples of this type of seed are
maize and wheat. Non-endospermic seeds have food reserve within the
cotyledon(s) of the plant embryo. This occurs in broad beans.
Process
of Fertilization in Flowering Plants
Explain process of fertilization in flowering
plants
During the growth and extension of the tube,
the generative nucleus, behind the tube nucleus, divides by
mitosis to produce 2 male haploid sperm nuclei.
The pollen tube enters the ovule through the micropyle and penetrates the
embryo sac wall. Then, the tip of the tube bursts open, the tube nucleus
disintegrates, creating a passage for the male nuclei and what follows is
called double fertilisation
§ 1 male gamete fuses with the egg cell to produce
a diploid zygote which undergoes mitosis to form
a diploid embryo.
§ 1 male gamete fuses with both the polar nuclei to
produce the triploid primary endosperm nucleus.
The triploid nucleus undergoes mitosis to form the endosperm. The endosperm stores food materials that the
embryo utilizes for growth and during germination.
The process of fertilisation
Immediately after fertilization the ovule becomes
the seed and the ovary becomes the fruit.
This is what happens:
§ The zygote divides
many times by mitosis to produce an embryo. It
differentiates to become a plumule (young
shoot), radicle (young root) and either 1 or 2 cotyledons (seed leaves). It is attached to the
wall of the embryo sac by a suspensor.
§ The primary endosperm nucleus divides
many times by mitosis to produce endosperm tissue. In
some seeds this endosperm is a food store for later use by the seed. In others
it may gradually disappear as the cotyledons develop.
§
To
accommodate all this growth the embryo sac expands and the nucellus is crushed
out of existence, giving its nutrients to the embryo and endosperm.
§ The integuments surrounding the embryo sac become
the tough and protectivetesta (seed
coat). The micropyle remains though so that oxygen and water can be taken in
during seed germination.
§
The
water content of the seed decreases drastically so the seed is prepared for
dormancy.
§
The
ovary wall becomes the pericarp- the fruit
wall, the whole ovary now being the fruit. The function of the fruit is to
protect the seeds and to aid in their dispersal, e.g. by an animal. That is why
they can be brightly coloured and sweet; animals will eat them and scatter the
seeds either at the time of eating or when they are passed out of the gut in
defecation, unharmed.
A detailed account of what happens after
fertilisation is given below:
§ Formation of the testa: The
testa is also referred to as the seed coat. The two integuments of the embryo
sac fuse to form one seed coat. The seed coat thickens and hardens. Sometimes
the outer integument forms the hard thick testa while the inner integument
remains thin and transparent. The thin transparent inner integument is referred
to as the tegmen. The testa protects the seed against dehydration, physical
damage and invasion by microorganisms. The microphyle permits oxygen and water
to enter the seed during germination. The hilum is a scar on the testa that
marks the point of attachment to the fruit.
§ The formation of the embryo:The
egg cell nucleus fuses with the male nucleus to form a zygote. The zygote
undergoes mitosis to form the embryo. An embryo is a rudimentary plant
comprising the plumule, radicle and cotyledons.
§ Formation of the pericarp: The
ovary wall becomes thick and swells up with food substances. The pericarp
develops from the ovary wall. The pericarp is often the edible layer in fruits.
In mature fruit it may dry up or remain fleshy.
§
Disintegration
of the floral parts:The sepals, petals, stigma and style wither, dry up
and fall off. In some cases, some of the floral parts may become fleshy and
form part of the fruit. The fruit retains scars at the points of attachment to
the pedicel and style.
Reproduction
in Mammals
The Male
and Female Reproductive Systems
Describe the male and female reproductive systems
Female Reproductive System
In humans, like animals, female reproductive system
is composed of:
§ Ovaries: Ovary is situated near each
kidney. Ovary produces ova, estrogen and progesterone as female sex hormones.
§ Fallopian tube: It
is also known as egg tube/oviduct, it is a funnel shaped opening. Fertilization
normally takes place within this tube.
§ Uterus:The two fallopian tubes unite to form
an expanded tubular organ called uterus womb. It is there that fertilized ova
implant and develop into an embryo. N.B. Placenta is formed as an embryo
develops, so as to allow penetration of nutrients, gases (oxygen and carbon
dioxide) and waste products of metabolism An embryo receives nutrient and
oxygen gases from maternal blood circulation and give out waste product through
placenta into maternal blood system.
§ Vagina: This is the posterior part of
the female reproductive duct connecting the uterus with the exterior. It is in
this region that sperms are deposited. N.B. Placenta with an endocrine at the
last period of pregnancy, it secretes progesterone like ovaries, which prevent
production of ova and contractions of the uterine walls.
Male Reproductive System
The male mammal reproductive system is composed of:
§ Testicles: These are situated in a pouch
of skin called scrotum. They produce sperms as endocrine gland it produces
secretes male sex hormone called testosterone. Testosterone influences male
secondary characteristics during puberty in males.
§ Sperm duct: It Is attached to each
testicle, it acts as a temporary store for sperms. Each epididymis leads into a
duct called sperm duct or vas di deferens.
§ Vas deferens: Is
the structure, which carries sperms away from the epididymis to penis
§ Seminal vesicles and prostate glands:These
are situated just below the urinary bladder and two structures called seminal
vesicles. Each seminal vesicle has a tube which leads to the sperm duct. Around
the junction of urinary bladder and urethra is a gland called prostate gland
Gamete
Formation and Fertilization
The
Process of Gamete Formation in Mammals
Outline the process of gamete formation in mammals
Gamete formation: Puberty
On average, female attain puberty (Sexual Maturity)
when they are 14 years old and male when they are 16 years old. In both sexes,
attainment of puberty is accompanied by certain behavioral changes as well as
development of certain structures.
Those changes are known as secondary sexual
characteristics.
NB: Puberty
can be defined as the period when male/female changes from childhood to
adulthood. These changes are influenced by sex hormones that are testosterone
in males, progesterone and estrogen in females.
Secondary characteristics in males:
§
Hairs
on their chins and pubic region
§
Shoulders
widen
§
Voice
deepens
§ Pay more attention to female sex
Secondary characteristics in females:
§
Enlargement
of the mammary gland and hips
§
Deposition
of fat which gives them more round appearance
§
Development
of pubic hair
§
Menstruation
cycle
§ Pay more attention to males (young men)
NB: At
puberty sex organs become fully functional in males and females.
Gamete formation:During
puberty stage is when both males and females are able to produce fertile cells
which united (of male and female) can cause pregnancy.
It is believed that female gametes are produced
before puberty but after puberty is when they are fully matured and fertile
while male gamete at large are produced during and after puberty that is when
can cause pregnancy when united with female gamete.
The
Processes of Ovulation and Menstruation
Explain the processes of ovulation and menstruation
Ovulation: It
refers to the release of ova/ovum from ovaries to the uterus. It is expected to
occur at the middle of the menstruation cycle.
Menstruation Cycle: This
can be defined as the period between one and next menstrual cycle (28 days)
Menstruation: This
is the discharge of mucus, epithelial cells and blood through vagina (3-5 days)
NB: The
menstruation and liberation of ova every 28 days alternates between the two
ovaries whereby in humans is called menstrual cycle and in non-human mammals is
called oestrus cycle.
The Process
of Fertilization Pregnancy and Child Birth
Explain the process of fertilization pregnancy and
child birth
The Menstrual Cycle
At the beginning of the cycle, the menstruation can
take place between 3-5 or 7th day
from the first day. At this period the secretion of female sex hormones are
very low but increase after menstruation stops.
After menstruation oestrogen secretion increases,
follicle stimulating hormone secreted to encourage production of ovarian
follicle.
Luteinizing hormone is for maturation and ovulation
of follicle while oestrogen prepares (thickening) the uterine for implantation
when fertilization takes place.
At the 14th (middle)
day is when ovulation can take place and secretion of progesterone increases so
as to thicken the uterine wall ready for pregnancy.
NB: If
no fertilization occurs, the cycle starts again.
Placenta:This
is the portion of uterus, which is invaded by the villi and the thickened
portion of the chorion. The chorion like amnion is a thin membrane but it has a
thick portion called villi, finger-like projection.
Umbilical Cord
§
It
connects the developing embryo to placenta to the maternal blood system
§
It
carries two arteries and a vein of blood circulation of an embryo
§
AN
embryo uses umbilical cord for gas exchange, receiving nutrients and removal of
waste products via placenta into maternal blood system
Birth
§
It
starts by a sudden fall in the level of oestrogen and progesterone resulting in
periodic contractions of muscular walls of the uterus which cause pains called
labour pains
§ Under the influence of hormones a child is given
out through vagina
Copulation
§
When a
male is sexually stimulated, the spongy penis is filled with blood and becomes
erect. The erect penis is inserted into the vagina and moved back and forth,
this movement stimulates sense organs in the penis and ejaculation occurs.
§ Ejaculation refers to the release of sperm into the
vagina; it can cause pregnancy when the fertile sperm unites with fertile ova.
Fertilization:It can
be defined as the process of uniting male and female gametes to form a zygote.
The sperms remain alive for up to 48 hours while ova remains alive for up to 36
hours.
Pregnancy:It
refers to the situation when a female conceives. That is fertilization takes
place to form zygote. Soon after zygote is formed its cell starts to divide
into many cells called embryo. It takes 3-5 days for the zygote to reach to
uterus for implantation.
Implantation:
§
Refers
to the process whereby an embryo attaches itself to the uterine wall
§
It
takes 3 – 5 days to implant fully
§
After
implantation envelope is formed, the outer chorion, inner amnion
§ Between these membranes of envelop there are fluids
called chorionic fluids and amniotic fluids respectively, both fluids act as shock
absorbers, protecting embryo from physical damage
Factors
Which May Hinder Fertilization
Outline factors which may hinder fertilization
A normal couple that is trying to start a family
will usually be successful after a few months. However, at least one in ten
couples do not conceive after a year or more of trying.
There are many reasons why couples can’t produce
children, some of them are:
§
Ova
are not released in normal monthly cycle
§
The
fallopian tubes may be blocked/twisted
§
The
women may make antibodies that destroy the sperm
§
The
vas deferens may be blocked
§
A high
proportion of the sperm produced are abnormal
§ Very few sperms are produced in one ejaculation
Ways of overcoming these problems
§
In –
Vitro Fertilization (IVF)
§
Fertility
Drugs
§ Artificial Insemination
The
Concept of Artificial Insemination and its Importance
Explain the concept of artificial insemination and
its importance
Artificial insemination, also known as AI, is a
procedure used to treatinfertilitythat involves direct insertion of semen into
a woman's womb. It is a process originally used on livestock that has been
adapted for human use. In human use, the sperm could originate from the woman's
male partner, unless the male is infertile or there is no male partner (i.e.
single woman or woman in same sex relationship).
The most commonly used method of artificial
insemination, is IUI (Intrauterine Insemination), as it has the best success
rate. Other types of AI are:
§
IUTPI
(Intrauterine tuboperitoneal insemination
§
ICI
(Intracervical insemination)
§ ITI (Intratubal insemination)
Artificial insemination is beneficial to couples or
individuals in many circumstances. For example a couple may be producing
healthy sperm and eggs but not necessarily be able to have intercourse (maybe
due to a medical condition). Some other scenarios where artificial insemination
could be beneficial are listed below.
§
A
woman may want to raise a child alone - in this case she would request a sperm
donor to be artificially inseminated.
§ The female may be infertile due tocervical factor infertility- the cervix is supposed to
produce a mucus that helps sperm travel to the womb. With cervical factor
infertility, the cervix is either not producing enough of this mucus, or it is
producing mucus containing sperm killing substances.
§ The woman may be sufferingEndometriosis- this is when cells from the womb lining
start to grow in places they should not within the woman's reproductive system
e.g. ovaries or fallopian tubes. One of the possible results of this condition
is infertility. Artificial insemination can be successful in mild to moderate
cases of this.
§
The
female could have semen allergy - this is rare but can still happen, due to
certain proteins in the sperm the woman may suffer an allergic reaction when
the sperm makes contact. With IUI most of the proteins would be removed before
sperm insertion.
§
The
male is unable to produce enough sperm for successful fertilization.
§ The man is impotent(erectile dysfunction)-
and would therefore be unable to perform sexual intercourse.
§
The
male could be infertile as a result of a medical treatment - some treatments
carry the risk of infertility e.g.radiotherapy. Before the treatment the male
would have been given the chance to freeze some of his sperm.
§
The
couple could be in same sex relationship - two women who want to raise a child
together would use sperm from a donor, which one of the women would receive via
artificial insemination.
§ Reason for infertility cannot be determined - IUI
may be recommended to a couple that cannot conceive even if no underlying
reason for the infertility can be identified.
Multiple
Pregnancies
The
Meaning of Multiple Pregnancies
Give the meaning of multiple pregnancies
Multiple pregnancy refers to a situation when more
than one ovum is released into the reproductive tract of the female. On this
occasion it is possible for more than one ovum to be fertilized, consequently
several viable embryos may enter the uterus where they are implanted and
developed.
The
Causes of Multiple Pregnancies
Explain the causes of multiple pregnancies
Multiple pregnancies may occur naturally or arise
as a result of reproductive technology involving fertility drug or during an
IVF program.
Causes of Multiple Pregnancy Include:
§
More
than one ovum released into the reproductive track
§ One fertilized ovum splitting up into more than one
embryo resulting to twins
Difference
between Identical Twins and Fraternal Twins
Differentiate between identical twins and fraternal
twins
Identical Twins: These
are fully identical since they come from a single fertilized ovum, which has
split to give two or four embryos and developing to give babies. They have the
same sex and appearance.
Fraternal Twins: Resulting
when more than one ovum (ova) are released at a time and are fertilized. They
may have the same sex but not identical at all.
Disorders
of Reproductive System
Types
of Disorders of Human Reproductive System
Mention types of disorders of human reproductive
system
Reproductive system is the one dealing with the
birth of a child. We have two types of reproductive systems, which are male
reproductive system and female reproductive system. The main function of
reproductive system is to fuse the gamete causing fertilization. Conserving the
baby in a mother’s womb till the day of bearing a child. Also is the one
providing birth/bearing of a child.
There are many disorders that affect the
reproductive system. These problems may be found in both male and female
reproductive systems. Disorders affecting male reproductive system are
Impotence, Premature Ejaculation, Inflammation and Autoimmunity. Female
disorders of the reproductive system are Damage to the Oviducts (inflammation),
Pelvic Inflammatory Diseases (PID), Congenital Malformation and Functional
Disorder.
The
Causes and Effects of the Reproductive System Disorders
Explain the causes and effects of the reproductive
system disorders
Male reproductive system disorders
Impotence
This is the inability to achieve or maintain an
erection of the penis. A male could not erect the penis even though he will
touch the sex organs.
Causes
of Impotence
§
Impotence
is usually psychological disturbance. It may occur any time during the life
time of a male
§
Strong
alcohol consumption and use of drugs
§
Diseases
also may cause impotence
Effects
of Impotence
§
Impotence
causes failure in performing the social act, thus one cannot have children
§
May
cause psychological disturbances to the person
§
If an
impotent person in married, impotence may lead to the break of that marriage
§
It may
lead to the contamination of diseases such as HIV/AIDS, gonorrhea when a couple
get out of marriage to get sexual satisfaction
Premature
Ejaculation
Premature ejaculation is the situation where a man
reaches orgasm before penetration of the penis into the female track. Before
inserting penis into the female track the male ejaculated long time outside the
female track.
Causes
of premature ejaculation
§
Fear,
anxiety and sometimes is the first time to have sexual intercourse
§
Psychological
factors may also lead to a problem
Effects
of premature ejaculation
§
The
person (male) fails to satisfy a woman
§
May
lead to the breakage of marriage when a woman finds another male for sexual
satisfaction
§
May
cause psychological disturbances in the man’s mind
Autoimmunity
This is a situation in which antibodies are made,
which attacks own sperm, thus reducing the number of sperms. It may lead to
have small number of sperms in the sperm store area.
Causes of Autoimmunity:Antibodies
react to one’s own sperm. It is not exactly known what causes autoimmunity.
Effects
of Autoimmunity
§
It
causes infertility to a person
§
May
cause psychological effects to the person who suffering from this problem
§
No
more production of children
Inflammation
It is the condition in which the urethra is
blocked. It allows no movement of sperm out of the penis and also the urine.
Causes
of inflammation
§
May be
caused by swelling of the prostate gland
§
Also
inflammation may cause the problem
Effects of inflammation
§
Inflammation
may lead to sterility (infertility)
§
May
cause psychological problems to the person
§ May cause severe pain during sexual intercourse as
one/man wants to ejaculate but sperms fail to pass through urethra
DISORDERS OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
DAMAGE
OF THE OVIDUCTS (INFLAMMATION)
Oviduct of the female may be blocked and causes the
female organs to do fertilization of an ovum
Causes of damages to the Oviduct
(inflammation):It may be caused by the infections due to different
diseases. The infections may cause scarring, thus leading to partial or
complete blockage of the oviduct.
Effects of damage to the Oviduct
(Inflammation):It causes infertility to the female. A female may
not have the ability to carry/conceive a child due to failure of fertilization
of an egg in the fallopian tube.
PELVIC
INFLAMMATORY DISORDER (PID)
This is the pelvic infection caused by
bacteria.This condition causes damage to the oviducts.It occurs commonly to
women with many sexual partners and women who use the coil contraceptive method
Effects of PID:The
condition may lead to infertility. A woman may fail to bear a child and if she
does so the child will not be normal
CONGENITAL
MALFORMATION
Some women are born with blocked oviduct or with no
uterus (it mostly happens in very few cases)
Causes of malformation:This
is a woman born with disorder caused by problems in the reproductive system
FUNCTIONAL
DISORDERS
This is a condition in which a woman fails/unable
to experience sexual pleasure during the sexual act
Causes
of functional disorders
§
The
cause may be psychological
§
Also
may be biological one
Effects
of functional disorders
§
May
cause someone to stay away not conducting sexual intercourse
§
May
lead to end in marriage
Possible
Remedies of Reproductive System Disorder
Suggest possible remedies of reproductive system
disorder
Treatment of Impotence
§
If the
causes of impotence are psychological, counseling may help to cure it
§
If the
cause is biological, one has to attend hospital for medical check up
Treatment of premature ejaculation
§
Counseling
is the most effective way to be adopted to treat the problem
§
Medical
treatment may be applied to stop the problem
Treatment of Autoimmunity
This disorder is more difficult to treat
Treatment of inflammation
One/man should have to seek medical advice or
intervention
Treatment of damage to the Oviduct
(Inflammation)
Surgery is the most effective way of treating this
problem.
Treatment of PID
§
If a
woman feels she has PID she should have to go to the hospital for the right
treatment
§
Abstaining
from many sexual partners so as to overcome more infections/problem
Treatment of functional disorders
§
Counseling
is the most effective way that may be used to help the patient regain their
confidence
§
Patients
may go to the hospital for further checks and treatment
Complication
of the Reproductive System
Types
of Complications of the Reproductive Systems
Mention types of complications of the reproductive systems
Most women give birth normally and perfectly but
some problems can and do occur in their reproductive system and causes effects
to the newly formed embryo.The problems/complications are abortion/miscarriage,
ectopic pregnancy and still births also breech birth.
§ Miscarriage:This is the loss of a developing
embryo before six months are over. Medically, miscarriage is considered as the
natural abortion. It may result from foetus not being fully developed, failure
of the embryo to implant properly or due to deformed embryo.
§ Ectopic Pregnancy:Occasionally
the fertilized ovum fails to reach the uterus and instead implants else where
in the reproductive track. For example it can be implanted in the fallopian
tube instead of uterus. This situation is known as ectopic pregnancy.Only 1 out
of 50,000 ectopic pregnancies may be delivered safely.
§ Abortion:Refers to the premature termination
of pregnancy. Abortion may occur naturally (miscarriage) or be induced. Induced Abortion is the abortion that is
deliberately brought out for medical reasons. Spontaneous Abortion is
the kind of abortion that occurs without humans or medical intervention. That
is not induced in any way. It is also referred to as miscarriage.
§ Breech Birth:This
is the situation where a baby is born feet or buttocks first. In such cases,
duration of delivery is critical, too fast delivery may result in damage and
too long delivery may cause oxygen deprivation and if left for a longtime may
result to death of the baby.Sometimes it becomes necessary to remove the baby
by other means such as forceps (surgical tongs) or Caesarian (C) section
§
Caesarian
Delivery:This is the removal of the baby from the uterus
using surgical means through making an incision in the abdominal and uterine
wall. Caesarian delivery can be done when either the baby is too big to pass
the female reproductive structures or the mother’s reproductive structures are
too small.
Other complications that occasionally arise during
childbirth and generally require management by an obstetrician may be described
as follows:
§
Non-progression
of labour (long-term contractions without adequate cervical dilation) is
generally treated with cervical prostaglandin gel or intravenous synthetic
oxytocin preparations. If this is ineffective Caesarian section may be
necessary.
§
Fetal
distress is the development of signs of distress by the child. These may
include rising or decreasing heartbeat (monitored on cardiotocography).
Shedding of meconium in the amniotic fluid and other signs.
§
Non-progression
of expulsion (the head or presenting parts are not delivered despite adequate
contractions); this can require interventions such as vacuum extraction forceps
extraction and Caesarian section.In the past a great many women died during or
shortly after childbirth but modern medical techniques available in
industrialized countries have greatly reduced this totally.
§
Unanticipated
heavy bleedingduring or after childbirth is potentially lethal n
places without immediate access to high-level emergency care. Heavy blood loss
leads to hypovolemic shock, insufficient perfusion of vital organs and death if
not rapidly treated by stemming the blood loss and blood transfusion.
Causes
of Complications of the Reproductive System
Outline causes of complications of the reproductive
system
Other complications that occasionally arise during
childbirth and generally require management by an obstetrician may be described
as follows:
§
Non-progression
of labour (long-term contractions without adequate cervical dilation) is
generally treated with cervical prostaglandin gel or intravenous synthetic
oxytocin preparations. If this is ineffective Caesarian section may be
necessary.
§
Fetal
distress is the development of signs of distress by the child. These may
include rising or decreasing heartbeat (monitored on cardiotocography).
Shedding of meconium in the amniotic fluid and other signs.
§
Non-progression
of expulsion (the head or presenting parts are not delivered despite adequate
contractions); this can require interventions such as vacuum extraction forceps
extraction and Caesarian section.In the past a great many women died during or
shortly after childbirth but modern medical techniques available in
industrialized countries have greatly reduced this totally.
§
Unanticipated
heavy bleeding during or after childbirth is potentially lethal n places
without immediate access to high-level emergency care. Heavy blood loss leads
to hypovolemic shock, insufficient perfusion of vital organs and death if not
rapidly treated by stemming the blood loss and blood transfusion.
Ways
to Minimize the Occurrence of Complications and Disorders of the Reproductive
System
Suggest ways to minimize the occurrence of
complications and disorders of the reproductive system
The following are the way of minimizing occurrence
of complications and disorders of the reproductive system.
§
Stop/minimizing
amount of alcohol that we take/drink may keep us away from impotence and other
infections that may lead to disorders in reproductive systems
§
Practicing
different duties/activities and participating in exercises also sports and
games helps to reduce psychological problems which may lead to disorders in the
reproductive system
§
Medical
check up between the partners who want to get married to know their Rhesus
factors, blood groups, infections and HIV/AIDS in order to minimize the death
or miscarriage during pregnancy
§ Getting early treatment of any infections like
gonorrhea, syphilis, bilharziasis, which may cause damage to the fallopian
tubes and urethra in male and female.
Sexuality and Sexual Health and Responsible Sexual Behaviour
The
Concept of Sexuality
Explain the concept of sexuality
Sexuality includes fondness or readiness for or
interest in a sexual activity.
Sexuality is the function of whole personality
begins at birth and end at death it includes:
§
How
you feel about yourself as a person
§
How
you feel being a man or woman
§
How
you get along with member of the same or opposite sex
§ It also includes genital and reproductive processes
such as intercourse and child bearing
Social
Cultural Factors Influencing Sexual Behaviour in Different Age Groups of People
Mention social cultural factors influencing sexual
behaviour in different age groups of people
Sexual Behaviour in Children
Factors influence sexual behavior in Children:
§
Start
at infantry when children shown their own bodies
§
Also
sexuality is shown at early age (play age)
§
Children
also do and learn from their fellow children on different sexual matters
§
Education
– in school and community
§
Initiation
rites
§
Religious
beliefs
§
Mass
Media
§ Economic status – both poor and rich
Sexual Behaviour in Adolescents
Factors influence sexual behaviour in adolescents:
§
Early
marriage
§
Social
pressure (tradition of being independent)
§
Drug
addiction – it can stimulate or depress the sexual practice
§
Peer
pressure
§
Education
– school and community
§
Moral
decay
§
Marriage
breakdown and problems
§
Poverty
§
Mass
Media
§ Lack of proper guidance and counseling
Difference
Between Responsible and Irresponsible Sexual Behaviour and Their Impact on
Oneself Family and Community
Differentiate responsible from irresponsible sexual
behaviour and their impact on oneself family and community
Responsible sexual behaviours are the behaviours,
which are acceptable in the societies to elicit or trigger sexual activity like
marriage.
Irresponsible sexual behaviors are those behaviours
of an individual, which are not acceptable by family as well as societies,
example use of alcohol and drugs (drug addiction) and prostitution to trigger
sexual activities.
Effects of irresponsible Sexual Behaviour
To an individual:
§
Becoming
pregnant at a tender age, thus losing the opportunity of being officially
married or continuing with studies
§
Being
in danger of contracting fatal venereal disease such as syphilis, HIV/AIDS,
gonorrhea etc.
§
It may
lead to death, when an individual tries to abort an unwanted pregnancy
§
Getting
a responsibility of caring for a family at an early age
§ It can degrade the personality of a person. For
example prostitutes or rapists have no place to put their faces in some societies
To family
§
Breakage
of marriage
§
Lead
to conflict in the family or marriage
§ Loss of particular relative if he/she contracts
disease like HIV/AIDS
Ways
of Eradicating Irresponsible Sexual Behaviours/Practices in the Family and
Community
Suggest ways of eradicating irresponsible sexual
behaviours/ practices in the family and community
There are several measures that can be taken to
eradicate irresponsible sexual behaviours in the family and community. The
measures include the following:
§
Old
children should not sleep with young children on the same bed without strict
follow-up by the parents/guardians.
§
Keeping
out of all situations culminating to sexual arousal such as watching
pornographic movies, alcoholism, meeting in isolated places, attending night
clubs and accompanying ill groups of people like homosexuals, harlots, and
rapists.
§
Adults,
guardians, parents, and teachers should talk openly to children about
relationships and sexual-education matters to make them informed about the
aftermath of irresponsible sexual behaviours.
§
Close
supervision and guidance of children
§
Getting
involved in age-appropriate activities (for example, sports, boys/girls clubs,
after-school activities, and craft activities) to help keep one’s minds out of
sexual mood and desires.
§
Protection
for children from scary or traumatic events, including media coverage of such
events as wars, bombings, or shootings; and
§
Closely
observing what your child watches on television and in the movies or is exposed
to in music and on the Internet.
§ Following religious teachings on sexuality.
Appropriate
Life Skills Required to Cope with Adolescent Sexuality and Sexual Behaviour
Mention appropriate life skills required to cope
with adolescent sexuality and sexual behaviour
Life skills are behaviours that enable individuals
to adapt to and deal effectively with the demands and challenges of life. There
are many such skills, but core life skills include the ability to:
§
make
decisions, solve problems, and think critically and creatively;
§
clarify
and analyze values;
§
communicate
( including listen, build empathy, be assertive, and negotiate);
§
cope
with emotions and stress; and
§ feel empathy (understand and care about other
peoples’ needs, desires and feelings) with others and be self-aware.
Some life skills required to cope with adolescent
sexuality and sexual behaviour include the following:
§
Educating
youth about health-related issues, such as alcohol, tobacco, and other drug
use; nutrition; reproductive health; and preventing HIV/AIDS and other sexually
transmitted infections (STIs). Life skills education can also be effective in
preventing school dropout and violence among young people.
§
Referring
young women to age-appropriate reproductive health services.
§
Promoting
youth's livelihood through vocational training, recreation, etc.
§
Mobilizing
and empowering individuals, families, and communities in order to reach,
influence, and involve everyone to become a part of the solution.
§
Parents
and teachers strictly supervising teenagers at home and school, respectively.
§ Adults and parents inculcating good moral
behaviours to adolescents by serving as good examples for them to follow.
Family
Planning and Contraception
The
Concept of Family Planning and Contraception
Explain the concept of family planning and
contraception
Family planning is
a decision made by a person freely on how many children he or se may want to
have and when she or he wants to stop.
Contraception refers
to prevention of conception that is prevention or preventing the fusion of the
male gamete with the female gamete. Birth control is broad it includes measures
taken to prevent birth after fertilization.
There are two methods used namely Artificial family
planning methods and Natural family planning methods.
§ Artificial Family Planning Methods includes
sterilization, oral contraceptives, intra-uterine devices, Norplant, diaphragm
and condoms
§
Natural
Family Planning Methods includes rhythm, the basal body
temperature and withdrawal (coitus interrupt)
Social
Practices which Enhance Family Planning
State social practices which enhance family
planning
Social cultural practices, which enhance family
planning, include the natural methods of family planning, which are:
Abstinence
This refers to the avoidance of sexual intercourse
or can be defined as refusal by sexually active male and female to have sexual
intercourse.
Advantage
of Abstinence
§
It is
the most effective method of preventing conception
§
The
approximated rate of failure of this method is zero percent
Disadvantages
of Abstinence
It is said to be unrealistic for many to practice
this method
Rhythm Method (Calendar Method)
This is modified from abstinence. N intercourse is
done during the fertile period. These days can be counted or identified by
counting the days between menstrual period and also by observing certain
associated physical changes such as small changes in body temperature. A woman
may also keep a written chart of her menstrual cycle for certain months and is
taught how to determine the number of days each month when sexual intercourse
must be avoided. Total abstinence is about 7 days in a month.
Advantages
of the Rhythm Method
§
The
method is said to be natural and widely acceptable
§
It has
no cost
§
It is
said to be 77-87% effective
Disadvantages
of Rhythm Method
§
The
approximate failure rate is 20%
§
It
requires good knowledge and good record keeping
§
It
also requires a period of abstinence
§
Irregularity
of the menstrual period (cycle)
Temperature Method
This method is based on the changes of a woman’s
body’s temperature due to her menstrual cycle. The temperature is said to drop
during the menstrual period and remains low until the release of an ovum. A
rise in temperature is noted at ovulation and sexual intercourse should be
avoided at this time if conception is not intended.
Advantages
of the Temperature Method
§
The
method is said to be 76-80% effective
§
It
costs nothing
§
It
does not require fitting and regular checkups
Disadvantages
of the Temperature Method
§
The
approximate failure is said to be 20-24%
§
Sperms
released to a female tract a few day before ovulation may survive until
ovulation
§
Irregularity
of the ovulation may cause fluctuation of temperature
Billing Method (Ovulation Method)
This method is based on the fact that the secretion
from the female tract changes noticeably during the course of her menstrual
cycle. The appearance of clear thin mucus in female tract secretions at
ovulation is noted and sexual intercourse is avoided during these times.
Advantages
of Billing Method
§
It is
said to be 76-80% effective
§
It
costs nothing (it is cheap)
§
It
does not require fitting and regular check ups
Disadvantages
of Billing Method
Regularity of ovulation may cause fluctuation of
temperature
Coitus Interruption (withdrawal)
Coitus interruption or withdrawal is another
natural method of birth control in which a male withdraws his penis from a
female tract before ejaculation. This method is one of the oldest methods of
birth control. Coitus interruption requires unusual degree of will power.
Advantages
of Withdrawal
§
The
method is costless
§
It is
reliable for 76-80% when practiced
Disadvantages
of Withdrawal
§
The
method requires some degree of will power
§
It has
a high failure rate in case fluid released from the penis just before
ejaculation may contain viable sperms
§
Sperms
may leak from penis before is withdrawal even without ejaculation
Artificial Methods of birth control
Barrier
Methods
These methods prevent sperms from entering the
female tract. These methods include:
Condom:This
is a thin rubber sheath, which prevents sperms from entering into the female
tract. Male condom is worn over an erect penis during intercourse and prevents
sperms from being released into the female tract that way preventing union of
sperm and ovum.
Advantages of Condoms
§
Condoms
are said to be 85% to 93% reliable when used properly (handled with care)
§
They
may help prevention of sexually transmitted diseases such as fungal infection
§ They are cheap and easily and obtained
Disadvantages of Condoms
§
Condoms
can tear and leak. In such cases they become useless
§
A
condom may slip off the penis after climax
§ Condoms may disrupt the act of love making (reduce
sensation)
Female
Condoms
Female condoms are equivalent to male condoms in
that:
§
It is
a thin rubber tube with a close end which fits inside the female tract
§ Female condoms are relatively new, so not much is
known about them. They give a woman some control and are said to have the
advantages as those f the male condoms
Diaphragm
This is another barrier method that prevents
entering of sperms into the female tract.A diaphragm is a flexible rubber,
which fits over the cervix and prevents entry of sperm to uterus. It is applied
with contraceptive jelly (cream) or spermicidal chemicals, which kill sperms. A
doctor must prescribe this method.
Advantages
of Diaphragm
§
The
method is said to be cheap
§
It can
be inserted a few hours before sexual act
Disadvantages
of Diaphragm
§
The
diaphragm must be fitted by a doctor and training is required for the woman to
fit it
§
It
disrupts spontaneity
§
It
occasionally causes pain in the abdomen
§
It
needs check up after every six (6) months
§
It
should be left in place six hours after intercourse
Spermicidal
These are chemicals, which kills sperms.
Spermicidal foam, or spermicidal jelly is placed in an applicator, which is inserted
and emptied into the female tract just before sexual intercourse. These kill
sperm and block cervix.
Advantages of Spermicidal
§
It is
cheap
§ It is effective for about an hour
Disadvantages of Spermicidal
§
It is
messy
§ It has a high failure rate if used on its own
The
pill
This is one of the most widely used contraceptive
methods.The pill is an oral contraceptive by synthetic oestrogen and
progesterone taken daily by the female.It function by suppressing the normal
release of gonadotropins from the pituitary. These synthetic hormones prevent
the ovulation process, thus hindering fertilization.
Advantages of the pill
§
The
pill is said to be very effective i.e. it is about 98% successful
§
A
woman has control over the method
§ It has no interference with sexual intercourse
Disadvantages of the pill
§
It is
not suitable for all women. There may be increased risk of blood clotting in
some women
§
It is
not recommended for older women or women who smoke
§ Short term side effects of the pill include nausea,
weight gain, tissue swelling, fluid retention and minor headaches
The
Importance of Male Involvement in Family Planning
Outline the importance of male involvement in
family planning
People go for family planning or control for a
number of reasons. Among these are:
§
To
ensure both partners are healthy and observe medical measures that are advised,
giving enough time for a mother’s full recovery after giving birth
§
Ability
to cater for the needs of many children
§
Couples
decide to practice child spacing so that they can cater for their needs
§ Helps to improve the health of a mother by helping
women to avoid pregnancy at early age, unwanted pregnancies and to become
pregnant at late age of 35 years
Importance of Family Planning and
Contraception
§
Some
family planning methods help to prevent the transmission of HIV and sexually
transmitted infections
§
Family
planning reduces the need for unsafe abortion
§
Family
planning reinforces people’s rights to determine the number and spacing of
their children
§
Family
planning helps to build the health of a mother
§ Family planning enables the couple to be able to
handle the family by catering to the needs of family
Maternal
and Child Care
The
Concept of Maternal and Child Care
Explain the concept of maternal and child care
A pregnant mother needs a lot of care and
consideration for the best of her health and that of the child. Basically there
are two types of care given to pregnant mother. These are pre-natal and
post-natal care. The care given before birth is called pre-natal care and the
care given during birth is called natal care. But a pregnant mother also needs
a care and support after birth of the child; this kind of care and support
provided after birth is called post-natal care.
Maternal care during pregnancy
(Pre-natal care)
Pre-natal care means before birth; therefore
pre-natal care means a care given to a pregnant woman before delivery.
Things to be done by a pregnant mother
§
Visit
ante-natal clinic for counseling
§
Maintain
general body cleanliness all the time
§
Have
enough rest
§
Wear
lose-fitting dresses and low heeled shoes for comfort
§ Eat well balanced diet containing all types of food
Things to be avoided by a pregnant
mother
§
Doing
tiresome and manual work. Example lifting heavy loads
§
Taking
any medicine not prescribed by the doctor
§
Taking
drugs such as alcohol, cigarettes which could be detrimental to the unborn baby
§
Tight
clothes and high heeled shoes
§
Avoid
situations leading to chances of contracting venereal diseases such as
gonorrhea, syphilis and AIDS which might affect the baby
§ Avoid stressful situation
Care during natal period
Natal period is the period when the pregnant mother
gives birth to the child she has been carrying in her womb for about nine
months. A number of things need to be considered during natal period:
§
An
expectant mother needs to undergo labor under supervision of a trained nurse or
trained birth attendant whenever this is possible
§
If any
complications occur that can not be solved by either a trained nurse or a
trained birth attendant arises, an expectant mother should be referred to the
health center or hospital for medical assistance
§
Most
births are perfectly normal but problems can and do occur. When problems arise,
modern delivery facilities or techniques such as Caesarean section and vacuum
extraction are used. Care should be taken not to damage any organ of the baby
or the mother
§ In case a newborn baby is pre-mature appropriate
services should be given to it so as to help it accomplish a normal pattern of
growth and development
Post-natal services to the mother and
the child
These are care and services provided to the mother
and the newborn child after birth. After birth a mother has another big
responsibility and role of breast-feeding the child.
Also a mother should attend post-natal clinic for medical
checks and immunization of the child Balanced diet should be supplied to a
lactating mother so as to ensure that she gets enough nutrition for her benefit
and ultimately that of the child.
Proper nutrition will help her to restore the
tissue worn out during the natal period. This helps also the newborn baby to
have enough milk from its mother. The health of both the mother and her child
should be seriously taken care of.
Child health care
Mothers should breast-feed the child whenever
possible, mother’s milk is better than any other food because of the following:
§
It
contains antibodies that are much needed to the child
§
In
case the mother has no health problems such milk is free from contamination
§
Mother’s
milk also contains much proteins and vitamins which are very important for the
child’s growth
§
Breast
milk is easily digested than other milk example bottled milk. Therefore
children who take milk from their mother rarely suffer from constipation
§
Mother’s
milk is said to contain some chemicals which help in development of the nervous
system of the child
§
Regular
attendance of post-natal clinic for the child is very important. The child
should also get immunized against different infections and diseases such as
polio, measles and other diseases
§ The mother should follow medical advice on how to
handle the child and in case of any problems report it to the personnel
concerned
Social-Cultural
Factors which Affect Maternal and Child Care in the Family and Community
Mention social-cultural factors which affect material
and child care in the family and community
These include the following:
§ Female Genital Mutilation (FGM):This
is the practice of circumcising women. It is said to have effects during
childbirth. It causes women to experience pain, bleeding, and shock and may
lead to infection.
§ Local Belief:These
are certain local beliefs and taboos such as banning women to eat certain types
of foods such as protein rich foods, which could help to build their health and
that of the child.
§ Working especially hard work such as
cultivation: Hard work may cause several problems to the pregnant woman such as
miscarriage or pain.
§
Alcohol
Consumption during pregnancy:In most cultural practices taking
alcohol is considered as a normal behaviour. But alcohol during pregnancy
affects both the health of the mother and that of the child.
Appropriate
Ways of Providing Maternal and Child Care for People Living with HIV/AIDS
(PLWHA
Suggest appropriate ways of providing maternal and
child care for people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA)
These include the following:
§
To
ensure frequent medical check up for both maternal and child
§
To
ensure they get well balanced diet
§
Avoid
sharing sharp objects like razor blades
§
Counseling
in order to help them deal with their feelings of loss and grief
§
To
avoid discrimination for people living with HIV/AIDS
§
Ensure
the use of polite language when providing care to them
§ Wearing of gloves when cleaning their bodies and
clothes